Neural+Networks

a series of connected [|neurons] which communicate due to [|neurotransmission]. The interface through which neurons interact with their neighbors consists of [|axon terminals] connected via [|synapses] to [|dendrites] on other neurons. If the sum of the input signals into one neuron surpasses a certain threshold, the neuron sends an [|action potential] at the [|axon hillock] and transmits this electrical signal along the [|axon].
 * Home * Learning * Neural Networks**
 * [[image:269px-Artificial_neural_network.svg.png width="260" link="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Artificial_neural_network.svg"]] ||~ || **Neural Networks**,

In 1949, [|Donald O. Hebb] introduced his [|theory] in //[|The Organization of Behavior]//, stating that learning is about to adapt weight vectors (persistent [|synaptic plasticity]) of the neuron pre-synaptic inputs, whose dot-product activates or controls the post-synaptic output, which is the base of Neural network learning. || toc =AN= Already in the early 40s, [|Warren S. McCulloch] and [|Walter Pitts] introduced the [|artificial neuron] as a logical element with multiple analogue inputs and a single digital output with a boolean result. The output fired "true", if the sum of the inputs exceed a threshold. In their 1943 paper //A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity//, they attempted to demonstrate that a Turing machine program could be implemented in a finite network of such neurons of combinatorial logic functions of AND, OR and NOT.
 * Artificial Neural Network ||~ ||^ ||

=ANNs= [|Artificial Neural Networks] (**ANNs**) are a family of [|statistical learning] devices or algorithms used in [|regression], and [|binary] or multiclass classification, implemented in hardware or software inspired by their biological counterparts. The [|artificial neurons] of one or more layers receive one or more inputs (representing dendrites), and after being weighted, sum them to produce an output (representing a neuron's axon). The sum is passed through a [|nonlinear] function known as an [|activation function] or transfer function. The transfer functions usually have a [|sigmoid shape], but they may also take the form of other non-linear functions, [|piecewise] linear functions, or [|step functions]. The weights of the inputs of each layer are tuned to minimize a [|cost or loss function], which is a task in [|mathematical optimization] and machine learning. 

Perceptron

 * [[image:Perceptron.svg.png width="260" link="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Perceptron.svg"]] ||~ || The [|perceptron] is an algorithm for supervised learning of [|binary classifiers]. It was the first artificial neural network, introduced in 1957 by [|Frank Rosenblatt], implemented in custom hardware. In its basic form it consists of a single neuron with multiple inputs and associated weights.

> math \displaystyle y = f \Big( \sum_{i=1}^{n} {x_i * w_i}\Big) math Supervised learning is applied using a set D of labeled [|training data] with pairs of [|feature vectors] (x) and given results as desired output (d), usually started with cleared or randomly initialized weight vector w. The output is calculated by all inputs of a sample, multiplied by its corresponding weights, passing the sum to the activation function f. The difference of desired and actual value is then immediately used modify the weights for all features using a learning rate 0.0 < α <= 1.0: code format="cpp" for (j=0, Σ = 0.0; j < nSamples; ++j) { for (i=0, X = bias; i < nFeatures; ++i) X += w[i]*x[j][i]; y = f ( X ); Σ += abs(Δ = d[j] - y); for (i=0; i < nFeatures; ++i) w[i] += α*Δ*x[j][i]; } code
 * Perceptron ||~ ||^ ||
 * Perceptron ||~ ||^ ||

AI Winter

 * [[image:XOR_perceptron_net.png width="260" link="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:XOR_perceptron_net.png"]] ||~ || Although the perceptron initially seemed promising, it was proved that perceptrons could not be trained to recognise many classes of patterns. This led to neural network research stagnating for many years, the [|AI-winter], before it was recognised that a [|feedforward neural network] with two or more layers had far greater processing power than with one layer. Single layer perceptrons are only capable of learning [|linearly separable] patterns. In their 1969 book //[|Perceptrons]//, Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert wrote that it was impossible for these classes of network to learn the XOR function. It is often believed that they also conjectured (incorrectly) that a similar result would hold for a [|multilayer perceptron] . However, this is not true, as both Minsky and Papert already knew that multilayer perceptrons were capable of producing an XOR function - ||
 * Three layer, XOR capable Perceptron ||~ ||^ ||

Backpropagation
In 1974, [|Paul Werbos] started to end the AI winter concerning neural networks, when he first descibed the mathematical process of training [|multilayer perceptrons] through [|backpropagation] of errors, derived in the context of [|control theory] by [|Henry J. Kelley] in 1960 and by [|Arthur E. Bryson] in 1961 using principles of dynamic programming, simplified by [|Stuart Dreyfus] in 1961 applying the [|chain rule]. It was in 1982, when Werbos applied a [|automatic differentiation] method described in 1970 by Seppo Linnainmaa to neural networks in the way that is widely used today. Backpropagation is a generalization of the [|delta] rule to multilayered [|feedforward networks], made possible by using the [|chain rule] to iteratively compute [|gradients] for each layer. Backpropagation requires that the [|activation function] used by the artificial neurons be [|differentiable], which is true for the common [|sigmoid] [|logistic function] or its [|softmax] generalization in [|multiclass classification]. Along with an [|optimization method] such as [|gradient descent], it calculates the gradient of a [|cost or loss function] with respect to all the weights in the neural network. The gradient is fed to the optimization method which in turn uses it to update the weights, in an attempt to minimize the loss function, which choice depends on the learning type (supervised, unsupervised, reinforcement) and the activation function - [|mean squared error] or [|cross-entropy error function] are used in [|binary classification]. The gradient is almost always used in a simple [|stochastic gradient descent] algorithm. In 1983, Yurii Nesterov contributed an accelerated version of gradient descent that converges considerably faster than ordinary gradient descent.

Backpropagation algorithm for a 3-layer network : code format="cpp" initialize the weights in the network (often small random values) do     for each example e in the training set O = neural-net-output(network, e) // forward pass T = teacher output for e        compute error (T - O) at the output units compute delta_wh for all weights from hidden layer to output layer // backward pass compute delta_wi for all weights from input layer to hidden layer  // backward pass continued update the weights in the network until all examples classified correctly or stopping criterion satisfied return the network code 

Deep Learning
Deep learning has been characterized as a [|buzzword], or a rebranding of neural networks. A [|deep neural network] (DNN) is an ANN with multiple hidden layers of units between the input and output layers which can be [|discriminatively] trained with the standard backpropagation algorithm. Two common issues if naively trained are [|overfitting] and computation time. 

Convolutional NNs
[|Convolutional neural networks] form a subclass of feedforward neural networks that have special weight constraints, individual neurons are tiled in such a way that they respond to overlapping regions. A neuron of a convolutional layer is connected to a correspondent [|receptive field] of the previous layer, a small subset of their neurons. Convolutional NNs are suited for deep learning and are highly suitable for parallelization on GPUs. They were research topic in the game of Go since 2008, and along with the residual modification successful applied in Go and other games, most spectacular due to AlphaGo in 2015 and AlphaZero in 2017. 
 * [[image:Typical_cnn.png link="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Typical_cnn.png"]] ||
 * Typical CNN ||

Residual Nets

 * [[image:ResiDualBlock.png width="260" link="https://arxiv.org/abs/1512.03385"]] ||~ || **Residual nets** add the input of a layer, typically composed of a convolutional layer and of a [|ReLU] layer, to its output. This modification, like convolutional nets inspired from image classification, enables faster training and deeper networks .||
 * A residual block  ||~  ||^ ||

=ANNs in Games= Applications of neural networks in computer games and chess are learning of evaluation and search control. Evaluation topics include [|feature selection] and automated tuning, search control move ordering, selectivity and time management. The perceptron looks like the ideal learning algorithm for automated evaluation tuning.

Backgammon
In the late 80s, Gerald Tesauro pioneered in applying ANNs to the game of Backgammon. His program [|Neurogammon] won the Gold medal at the 1st Computer Olympiad 1989 - and was further improved by //TD-Lambda// based Temporal Difference Learning within [|TD-Gammon]. Today all strong backgammon programs rely on heavily trained neural networks.

Go
In 2014, two teams independently investigated whether deep convolutional neural networks could be used to directly represent and learn a move evaluation function for the game of Go. Christopher Clark and Amos Storkey trained an 8-layer convolutional neural network by supervised learning from a database of human professional games, which without any search, defeated the traditional search program Gnu Go in 86% of the games. In their paper //Move Evaluation in Go Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks//, Chris J. Maddison, Aja Huang, Ilya Sutskever, and David Silver report they trained a large 12-layer convolutional neural network in a similar way, to beat Gnu Go in 97% of the games, and matched the performance of a state-of-the-art Monte-Carlo Tree Search that simulates a million positions per move.

In 2015, a team affiliated with Google DeepMind around David Silver and Aja Huang, supported by Google researchers John Nham and Ilya Sutskever, build a Go playing program dubbed AlphaGo, combining Monte-Carlo tree search with their 12-layer networks.

Chess
Logistic regression as applied in Texel's Tuning Method may be interpreted as supervised learning application of the single-layer perceptron with one neuron. This is also true for reinforcement learning approaches, such as TD-Leaf in KnightCap or Meep's TreeStrap, where the evaluation consists of a weighted linear combination of features. Despite these similarities with the perceptron, these engines are not considered using ANNs - since they use manually selected chess specific feature construction concepts like material, piece square tables, pawn structure, mobility etc..

More sophisticated attempts to replace static evaluation by neural networks and perceptrons feeding in more unaffiliated feature sets like board representation and attack tables etc., where not yet that successful like in other games. Chess evaluation seems not that well suited for neural nets, but there are also aspects of too weak models and feature recognizers as addressed by Gian-Carlo Pascutto with Stoofvlees, huge training effort, and weak floating point performance - but there is still hope due to progress in hardware and parallelization using SIMD instructions and GPUs, and deeper and more powerful neural network structures and methods successful in other domains. In December 2017, Google DeepMind published about their generalized AlphaZero algorithm.

Move Ordering
Concerning move ordering - there were interesting NN proposals like the Chessmaps Heuristic by Kieran Greer et al., and the Neural MoveMap Heuristic by Levente Kocsis et al..

Giraffe & Zurichess
In 2015, Matthew Lai trained Giraffe's deep neural network by TD-Leaf. Zurichess by Alexandru Moșoi uses the [|TensorFlow] library for automated tuning - in a two layers neural network, the second layer is responsible for a tapered eval to phase endgame and middlegame scores.

DeepChess
In 2016, Omid E. David, Nathan S. Netanyahu, and Lior Wolf introduced DeepChess obtaining a grandmaster-level chess playing performance using a learning method incorporating two deep neural networks, which are trained using a combination of unsupervised pretraining and supervised training. The unsupervised training extracts high level features from a given chess position, and the supervised training learns to compare two chess positions to select the more favorable one. In order to use DeepChess inside a chess program, a novel version of alpha-beta is used that does not require bounds but positions α pos and β pos. 

Alpha Zero
In December 2017, the Google DeepMind team along with former Giraffe author Matthew Lai reported on their generalized AlphaZero algorithm, combining Deep learning with Monte-Carlo Tree Search. AlphaZero can achieve, tabula rasa, superhuman performance in many challenging domains with some training effort. Starting from random play, and given no domain knowledge except the game rules, AlphaZero achieved a superhuman level of play in the games of chess and Shogi as well as Go, and convincingly defeated a world-champion program in each case.

=See also= > AlphaGo > Keynote Lecture CG 2016 Conference by Aja Huang  =NN Chess Programs=
 * Analog Evaluation
 * Backgammon
 * Chessmaps Heuristic
 * Convolutional Neural Networks in Go
 * Cognition
 * Deep Learning
 * DeepChess
 * Genetic Programming
 * Memory
 * Neural MoveMap Heuristic
 * Pattern Recognition
 * Temporal Difference Learning
 * Alexs
 * AlphaZero
 * Arminius
 * Blondie25
 * ChessMaps
 * Chessterfield
 * Deep Pink
 * Giraffe
 * Golch
 * Gosu
 * Hermann
 * LCZero
 * Morph
 * NeuroChess
 * Octavius
 * SAL
 * Spawkfish
 * Stoofvlees
 * Tempo
 * Zurichess

=Selected Publications=

1940 ...

 * [|Walter Pitts] (**1942**). //[|Some observations on the simple neuron circuit]//. [|Bulletin of Mathematical Biology], Vol. 4, No. 3
 * [|Warren S. McCulloch], [|Walter Pitts] (**1943**). //[|A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity]//. [|Bulletin of Mathematical Biology], Vol. 5, No. 1, [|pdf]
 * [|Donald O. Hebb] (**1949**). //[|The Organization of Behavior]//. [|Wiley & Sons]

1950 ...
> Claude Shannon, John McCarthy (eds.) (**1956**). //Automata Studies//. [|Annals of Mathematics Studies], No. 34 > Claude Shannon, John McCarthy (eds.) (**1956**). //Automata Studies//. [|Annals of Mathematics Studies], No. 34, [|pdf]
 * Stephen C. Kleene (**1951**) //Representation of Events in Nerve Nets and Finite Automata//. RM-704, [|RAND paper], [|pdf], reprinted in
 * Marvin Minsky (**1954**). //Neural Nets and the Brain Model Problem//. Ph.D. dissertation, [|Princeton University]
 * [|B. G. Farley], [|W. A. Clark] (**1954**). //Simulation of Self-Organizing Systems by Digital Computer//. [|IRE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol. 4]
 * John von Neumann (**1956**). //Probabilistic Logic and the Synthesis of Reliable Organisms From Unreliable Components//. in
 * Nathaniel Rochester, John H. Holland, [|L. H. Haibt], [|W. L. Duda] (**1956**). //Tests on a Cell Assembly Theory of the Action of the Brain, Using a Large Digital Computer//. [|IRE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol. 2], No. 3
 * [|Frank Rosenblatt] (**1957**). //The Perceptron - a Perceiving and Recognizing Automaton//. Report 85-460-1, [|Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory]

1960 ...

 * [|Henry J. Kelley] (**1960**). //[|Gradient Theory of Optimal Flight Paths]//. [|ARS Journal, Vol. 30, No. 10 » [[Neural Networks#Backpropagation|Backpropagation]
 * [|Arthur E. Bryson] (**1961**). //A gradient method for optimizing multi-stage allocation processes//. In Proceedings of the Harvard University Symposium on digital computers and their applications » Backpropagation
 * [|Stuart Dreyfus] (**1961**). //[|The numerical solution of variational problems]//. RAND paper P-2374 » Backpropagation
 * [|Frank Rosenblatt] (**1962**). //[|Principles of Neurodynamics: Perceptrons and the Theory of Brain Mechanisms]//. Spartan Books
 * [|Alexey G. Ivakhnenko] (**1965**). //Cybernetic Predicting Devices//. [|Naukova Dumka]
 * Marvin Minsky, Seymour Papert (**1969**). //[|Perceptrons]//.

1970 ...

 * Seppo Linnainmaa (**1970**). //The representation of the cumulative rounding error of an algorithm as a Taylor expansion of the local rounding errors//. Master's thesis, [|University of Helsinki] » Backpropagation
 * [|Alexey G. Ivakhnenko] (**1971**). //Polynomial theory of complex systems//. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Vol. 1, No. 4
 * A. Harry Klopf (**1972**). //Brain Function and Adaptive Systems - A Heterostatic Theory//. [|Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratories], Special Reports, No. 133, [|pdf]
 * Marvin Minsky, Seymour Papert (**1972**). //[|Perceptrons: An Introduction to Computational Geometry]//. [|The MIT Press], 2nd edition with corrections
 * Stephen Grossberg (**1973**). //Contour Enhancement, Short Term Memory, and Constancies in Reverberating Neural Networks//. [|Studies in Applied Mathematics], Vol. 52, [|pdf]
 * Stephen Grossberg (**1974**). //[|Classical and instrumental learning by neural networks]//. Progress in Theoretical Biology. [|Academic Press]
 * [|Paul Werbos] (**1974**). //[|Beyond Regression: New Tools for Prediction and Analysis in the Behavioral Sciences]//. Ph. D. thesis, Harvard University
 * Richard Sutton (**1978**). //Single channel theory: A neuronal theory of learning//. Brain Theory Newsletter 3, No. 3/4, pp. 72-75. [|pdf]

1980 ...

 * [|Kunihiko Fukushima] (**1980**). //Neocognitron: A Self-organizing Neural Network Model for a Mechanism of Pattern Recognition Unaffected by Shift in Position//. [|Biological Cybernetics], Vol. 36
 * Richard Sutton, Andrew Barto (**1981**). //Toward a modern theory of adaptive networks: Expectation and prediction//. Psychological Review, Vol. 88, pp. 135-170. [|pdf]
 * [|Paul Werbos] (**1982**). //Applications of advances in nonlinear sensitivity analysis//. [|System Modeling and Optimization], [|Springer], [|pdf]
 * A. Harry Klopf (**1982**). //The Hedonistic Neuron: A Theory of Memory, Learning, and Intelligence//. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, University of Michigan
 * David H. Ackley, Geoffrey E. Hinton, Terrence J. Sejnowski (**1985**). //A Learning Algorithm for Boltzmann Machines//. Cognitive Science, Vol. 9, No. 1, [|pdf]
 * [|David E. Rumelhart], Geoffrey E. Hinton, [|Ronald J. Williams] (**1986**). //Learning representations by back-propagating errors//. [|Nature], Vol. 323, [|pdf]
 * 1987**
 * Gerald Tesauro, Terrence J. Sejnowski (**1987**). //A 'Neural' Network that Learns to Play Backgammon//. [|NIPS 1987]
 * Eric B. Baum, [|Frank Wilczek] (**1987**). //[|Supervised Learning of Probability Distributions by Neural Networks]//. [|NIPS 1987]
 * A. Harry Klopf (**1987**). //[|A Neuronal Model of Classical Conditioning]//. Technical Report, [|Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratories]
 * 1988**
 * Richard Sutton (**1988**). //Learning to Predict by the Methods of Temporal Differences//. Machine Learning, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 9-44. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston. ISSN 0885-6125.
 * Gerald Tesauro (**1988**). //Neural network defeats creator in backgammon match//. Technical report no. CCSR-88-6, Center for Complex Systems Research, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
 * Eric B. Baum, David Haussler (**1988**). //[|What Size Net Gives Valid Generalization?]// [|NIPS 1988]
 * Eric B. Baum (**1988**). //[|On the capabilities of multilayer perceptrons]//. [|Complexity], Vol. 4, No. 3
 * Alan Lapedes, [|Robert Farber] (**1988**). //How Neural Nets Work//. [|pdf]
 * 1989**
 * Eric B. Baum (**1989**). //[|The Perceptron Algorithm Is Fast for Non-Malicious Distributions]//. [|NIPS 1989]
 * Eric B. Baum (**1989**). //[|A Proposal for More Powerful Learning Algorithms]//. [|Neural Computation], Vol. 1, No. 2
 * [|Erach A. Irani], [|John P. Matts], [|John M. Long], James R. Slagle, POSCH group (**1989**). //Using Artificial Neural Nets for Statistical Discovery: Observations after Using Backpropogation, Expert Systems, and Multiple-Linear Regression on Clinical Trial Data//. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA, Complex Systems 3, [|pdf]
 * Gerald Tesauro, Terrence J. Sejnowski (**1989**). //A Parallel Network that Learns to Play Backgammon//. [|Artificial Intelligence], Vol. 39, No. 3
 * Erol Gelenbe (**1989**). //[|Random Neural Networks with Negative and Positive Signals and Product Form Solution]//. [|Neural Computation], Vol. 1, No. 4

1990 ...

 * [|Paul Werbos] (**1990**). //Backpropagation Through Time: What It Does and How to Do It//. Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 78, No. 10, [|pdf]
 * Gordon Goetsch (**1990**). //Maximization of Mutual Information in a Context Sensitive Neural Network//. Ph.D. thesis
 * Vadim Anshelevich (**1990**). //Neural Networks//. Review. in Multi Component Systems (Russian)
 * Eric B. Baum (**1990**). //Polynomial Time Algorithms for Learning Neural Nets//. [|COLT 1990]
 * 1991**
 * Sepp Hochreiter (**1991**). //Untersuchungen zu dynamischen neuronalen Netzen//. Diploma thesis, TU Munich, advisor Jürgen Schmidhuber, [|pdf] (German)
 * Alex van Tiggelen (**1991**). //Neural Networks as a Guide to Optimization - The Chess Middle Game Explored//. ICCA Journal, Vol. 14, No. 3
 * Jürgen Schmidhuber, Rudolf Huber (**1991**). //Using sequential adaptive Neuro-control for efficient Learning of Rotation and Translation Invariance//. In [|Teuvo Kohonen], [|Kai Mäkisara], [|Olli Simula], and [|Jari Kangas], editors, //[|Artificial Neural Networks]//. [|Elsevier]
 * Jürgen Schmidhuber (**1991**). //[|Dynamische neuronale Netze und das fundamentale raumzeitliche Lernproblem]// (Dynamic Neural Nets and the Fundamental Spatio-Temporal Credit Assignment Problem). Ph.D. thesis
 * Yoav Freund, David Haussler (**1991**). //Unsupervised Learning of Distributions of Binary Vectors Using 2-Layer Networks//. [|NIPS 1991]
 * Byoung-Tak Zhang, Gerd Veenker (**1991**). //[|Neural networks that teach themselves through genetic discovery of novel examples]//. [|IEEE International Joint Conference on Neural Networks]
 * 1992**
 * Michael Reiss (**1992**). //Temporal Sequence Processing in Neural Networks//. Ph.D. thesis, [|King's College London], advisor John G. Taylor, [|pdf]
 * Jacek Mańdziuk, [|Bohdan Macukow] (**1992**). //A Neural Network designed to solve the N-Queens Problem//. [|Biological Cybernetics, Vol. 66 No. 4], [|pdf]
 * Gerald Tesauro (**1992**). //Temporal Difference Learning of Backgammon Strategy//. [|ML 1992]
 * Gerald Tesauro (**1992**). //[|Practical Issues in Temporal Difference Learning]//. [|Machine Learning, Vol. 8, No. 3-4]
 * Egbert Boers, Herman Kuiper (**1992**). //Biological metaphors and the design of modular artificial neural networks//. Master’s thesis, Leiden University, [|pdf]
 * Martin Riedmiller, Heinrich Braun (**1992**). //[|Rprop - A Fast Adaptive Learning Algorithm]//. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Computer and Information Science
 * Justin A. Boyan (**1992**). //Modular Neural Networks for Learning Context-Dependent Game Strategies//. Master's thesis, [|University of Cambridge], [|pdf]
 * [|Patricia Churchland], Terrence J. Sejnowski (**1992**). //[|The Computational Brain]//. [|MIT Press]
 * 1993**
 * Jacek Mańdziuk, [|Bohdan Macukow] (**1993**). //A Neural Network performing Boolean Logic Operations//. [|Optical Memory and Neural Networks], Vol. 2, No. 1, [|pdf]
 * Sebastian Thrun, Tom Mitchell (**1993**). //Integrating Inductive Neural Network Learning and Explanation-Based Learning//. Proceedings of the 13th IJCAI, pp. 930-936. Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, CA, [|zipped ps]
 * Byoung-Tak Zhang, Heinz Mühlenbein (**1993**). //Evolving Optimal Neural Networks Using Genetic Algorithms with Occam's Razor//. [|Complex Systems], Vol. 7, [|pdf]
 * Martin Riedmiller, Heinrich Braun (**1993**). //A direct adaptive method for faster backpropagation learning: The RPROP algorithm//. [|IEEE International Conference On Neural Networks], [|pdf]
 * 1994**
 * [|Paul Werbos] (**1994**). //[|The Roots of Backpropagation. From Ordered Derivatives to Neural Networks and Political Forecasting]//. [|John Wiley & Sons]
 * David E. Moriarty, Risto Miikkulainen (**1994**). //Evolving Neural Networks to focus Minimax Search//. AAAI-94, [|pdf]
 * Eric Postma (**1994**). //SCAN: A Neural Model of Covert Attention//. Ph.D. thesis, Maastricht University, advisor Jaap van den Herik
 * Sebastian Thrun (**1994**). //Neural Network Learning in the Domain of Chess//. Machines That Learn, [|Snowbird], Extended abstract
 * Christian Posthoff, S. Schawelski, Michael Schlosser (**1994**). //Neural Network Learning in a Chess Endgame Positions//. IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence
 * Nicol N. Schraudolph, Peter Dayan, Terrence J. Sejnowski (**1994**). //[|Temporal Difference Learning of Position Evaluation in the Game of Go]//. [|Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 6]
 * Alois Heinz (**1994**). //[|Efficient Neural Net α-β-Evaluators]//. [|pdf]
 * Alois Heinz (**1994**). //Fast bounded smooth regression with lazy neural trees//. [|ICNN 1994], DOI: [|10.1109/ICNN.1994.374421]
 * Martin Riedmiller (**1994**). //Rprop - Description and Implementation Details//. Technical Report, [|University of Karlsruhe], [|pdf]
 * 1995**
 * [|Peter J. Braspenning], Frank Thuijsman, [|Ton Weijters] (eds) (**1995**). //[|Artificial neural networks: an introduction to ANN theory and practice]//. [|LNCS] 931, [|Springer]
 * Anton Leouski (**1995**). //Learning of Position Evaluation in the Game of Othello//. Master's Project, [|University of Massachusetts], [|Amherst, Massachusetts], [|pdf]
 * Sepp Hochreiter, Jürgen Schmidhuber (**1995**). //[|Simplifying Neural Nets by Discovering Flat Minima]//. In Gerald Tesauro, [|David S. Touretzky] and [|Todd K. Leen] (eds.), //[|Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 7]//, NIPS'7, pages 529-536. [|MIT Press]
 * Sebastian Thrun (**1995**). //[|Learning to Play the Game of Chess]//. in Gerald Tesauro, [|David S. Touretzky], [|Todd K. Leen] (eds.) Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 7, [|MIT Press]
 * [|Sepp Hochreiter], Jürgen Schmidhuber (**1995**). //[|Simplifying Neural Nets by Discovering Flat Minima]//. In Gerald Tesauro, [|David S. Touretzky] and [|Todd K. Leen] (eds.), //[|Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 7]//, NIPS'7, pages 529-536. [|MIT Press]
 * Sebastian Thrun (**1995**). //Explanation-Based Neural Network Learning - A Lifelong Learning Approach//. Ph.D. thesis, [|University of Bonn], advisors Armin Cremers and Tom Mitchell
 * Gerald Tesauro (**1995**). //Temporal Difference Learning and TD-Gammon//. Communications of the ACM Vol. 38, No. 3
 * Eric Postma (**1995**). //Optimization Networks//. [|Artificial Neural Networks]
 * [|Jacek Jelonek], Krzysztof Krawiec, [|Roman Slowinski] (**1995**). //[|Rough Set Reduction of Attributes and their Domains for Neural Networks]//. [|Computational Intelligence], Vol. 11, No. 2
 * Omar Syed (**1995**). //[|Applying Genetic Algorithms to Recurrent Neural Networks for Learning Network Parameters and Architecture]//, Masters Thesis, [|Case Western Reserve University]
 * Pascal Tang (**1995**). //Forecasting with Neural networks//. [|ICANN 1995]
 * Marco Wiering (**1995**). //[|TD Learning of Game Evaluation Functions with Hierarchical Neural Architectures]//. Master's thesis, [|University of Amsterdam], [|pdf]
 * Michael A Arbib (ed.) (**1995, 2002**). //[|The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks]//. [|The MIT Press]
 * Nicol N. Schraudolph (**1995**). //[|Optimization of Entropy with Neural Networks]//. Ph.D. thesis, [|University of California, San Diego]
 * Alois Heinz (**1995**). //Pipelined Neural Tree Learning by Error Forward-Propagation//. [|ICNN 1995], DOI: [|10.1109/ICNN.1995.488132], [|pdf]
 * Alois Heinz, Christoph Hense (**1995**). //[|Tools for Neural Trees]//. Technical Report No. 68
 * Nicol N. Schraudolph, Terrence J. Sejnowski (**1995**). //Tempering Backpropagation Networks: Not All Weights are Created Equal//. [|NIPS 1995], [|pdf]
 * 1996**
 * Sebastian Thrun (**1996**). //[|Explanation-Based Neural Network Learning: A Lifelong Learning Approach]//. [|Kluwer Academic Publishers]
 * Wee Sun Lee (**1996**). //Agnostic Learning and Single Hidden Layer Neural Networks.// Ph.D. thesis, Australian National University, [|ps]
 * Markus Enzenberger (**1996**). //[|The Integration of A Priori Knowledge into a Go Playing Neural Network]//.
 * Pieter Spronck (**1996**). //Elegance: Genetic Algorithms in Neural Reinforcement Control//. Master thesis, Delft University of Technology, [|pdf]
 * Raúl Rojas (**1996**). //[|Neural Networks - A Systematic Introduction]//. [|Springer], available as [|pdf ebook]
 * 1997**
 * Sepp Hochreiter, Jürgen Schmidhuber (**1997**). //Long short-term memory//. [|Neural Computation], Vol. 9, No. 8, [|pdf]
 * Kieran Greer, Piyush Ojha, David A. Bell (**1997**). //Learning Search Heuristics from Examples: A Study in Computer Chess//. Seventh Conference of the Spanish Association for Artificial Intelligence, CAEPIA’97, November, pp. 695-704.
 * Don Beal, Martin C. Smith (**1997**). //Learning Piece Values Using Temporal Differences//. ICCA Journal, Vol. 20, No. 3
 * 1998**
 * Kieran Greer (**1998**). //A Neural Network Based Search Heuristic and its Application to Computer Chess//. D.Phil. Thesis, [|University of Ulster]
 * Nobusuke Sasaki, Yasuji Sawada, Jin Yoshimura (**1998**). //[|A Neural Network Program of Tsume-Go]//. CG 1998
 * Krzysztof Krawiec, [|Roman Slowinski], [|Irmina Szczesniak] (**1998**). //[|Pedagogical Method for Extraction of Symbolic Knowledge from Neural Networks]//. [|Rough Sets and Current Trends in Computing 1998]
 * Steven Walczak (**1998**). //Neural network models for a resource allocation problem//. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part B 28(2)
 * Jonathan Baxter, Andrew Tridgell, Lex Weaver (**1998**). //Experiments in Parameter Learning Using Temporal Differences//. ICCA Journal, Volume 21 No. 2, [|pdf]
 * Guy Haworth, Meel Velliste (**1998**). //[|Chess Endgames and Neural Networks]//. ICCA Journal, Vol. 21, No. 4
 * Don Beal, Martin C. Smith (**1998**). //First Results from Using Temporal Difference Learning in Shogi//. CG 1998
 * Nicol N. Schraudolph (**1998**). //[|Centering Neural Network Gradient Factors]//. Neural Networks: Tricks of the Trade
 * Toshinori Munakata (**1998**). //[|Fundamentals of the New Artificial Intelligence: Beyond Traditional Paradigms]//. 1st edition, [|Springer], 2nd edition 2008
 * 1999**
 * Kumar Chellapilla, David B. Fogel (**1999**). //[|Evolution, Neural Networks, Games, and Intelligence]//. Proceedings of the IEEE, September, pp. 1471-1496. [|CiteSeerX]
 * Kumar Chellapilla, David B. Fogel (**1999**). //[|Evolving Neural Networks to Play Checkers without Expert Knowledge]//. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 1382-1391.
 * Kieran Greer, Piyush Ojha, David A. Bell (**1999**). //A Pattern-Oriented Approach to Move Ordering: the Chessmaps Heuristic//. ICCA Journal, Vol. 22, No. 1
 * Anna Górecka, Maciej Szmit (**1999**). //Exchange rates prediction by ARIMA and Neural Networks Models//. 47th International Atlantic Economic Conerence (Abstract: International Advances of Economic Research Vol 5 Nr 4 Nov. 1999, St Louis, MO, USA 1999), [|pdf]
 * Don Beal, Martin C. Smith (**1999**). //Learning Piece-Square Values using Temporal Differences.// ICCA Journal, Vol. 22, No. 4
 * [|Simon S. Haykin] (**1999**). //[|Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation]//. 2nd Edition, [|Prentice-Hall]
 * Laurence F. Abbott, Terrence J. Sejnowski (eds.) (**1999**). //[|Neural Codes and Distributed Representations]//. [|MIT Press]
 * Geoffrey E. Hinton, Terrence J. Sejnowski (eds.) (**1999**). //[|Unsupervised Learning: Foundations of Neural Computation]//. [|MIT Press]
 * Peter Dayan (**1999**). //Recurrent Sampling Models for the Helmholtz Machine//. [|Neural Computation], Vol. 11, No. 3, [|pdf]

2000 ...

 * Levente Kocsis, Jos Uiterwijk, Jaap van den Herik (**2000**). //[|Learning Time Allocation using Neural Networks]//. CG 2000
 * Peter Auer, Stephen Kwek, Wolfgang Maass, Manfred K. Warmuth (**2000**). //[|Learning of Depth Two Neural Networks with Constant Fan-in at the Hidden Nodes]//. [|Electronic Colloquium on Computational Complexity, Vol. 7]
 * Jonathan Baxter, Andrew Tridgell, Lex Weaver (**2000**). //Learning to Play Chess Using Temporal Differences//. [|Machine Learning, Vol 40, No. 3], [|pdf]
 * Alois Heinz (**2000**). //[|Tree-Structured Neural Networks: Efficient Evaluation of Higher-Order Derivatives and Integrals]//. [|IJCNN 2000]
 * Robert Levinson, Ryan Weber (**2000**). //[|Chess Neighborhoods, Function Combination, and Reinforcement Learning]//. CG 2000, [|pdf]
 * Matthias Lüscher (**2000**). //Automatic Generation of an Evaluation Function for Chess Endgames//. ETH Zurich Supervisors: Thomas Lincke and Christoph Wirth, [|pdf] » Endgame
 * Miroslav Kubat (**2000**). //[|Designing neural network architectures for pattern recognition]//. [|The Knowledge Engineering Review, Vol. 15], No. 2
 * [|Igor Aizenberg], [|Naum N. Aizenberg], [|Joos Vandewalle] (**2000**). //[|Multi-Valued and Universal Binary Neurons: Theory, Learning and Applications]//. [|Springer]
 * 2001**
 * Erik van der Werf, Jaap van den Herik (**2001**). //Visual Learning in Go//. 6th Computer Olympiad Workshop, [|pdf]
 * Levente Kocsis, Jos Uiterwijk, Jaap van den Herik (**2001**). //Move Ordering using Neural Networks//. IEA/AIE 2001, [|LNCS] 2070, [|pdf]
 * Kee Siong Ng (**2001**). //Neural Networks for Structured Data//. BSc-Thesis, [|zipped ps]
 * Jonathan Schaeffer, Markian Hlynka, Vili Jussila (**2001**). //Temporal Difference Learning Applied to a High-Performance Game-Playing Program//. [|IJCAI 2001]
 * Don Beal, Martin C. Smith (**2001**). //Temporal difference learning applied to game playing and the results of application to Shogi//. Theoretical Computer Science, Volume 252, Issues 1-2, pp. 105-119
 * Nicol N. Schraudolph, Peter Dayan, Terrence J. Sejnowski (**2001**). //[|Learning to Evaluate Go Positions via Temporal Difference Methods]//. in  Norio Baba, Lakhmi C. Jain (eds.) (**2001**). //[|Computational Intelligence in Games, Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing]//. [|Physica-Verlag]
 * Peter Dayan, Laurence F. Abbott (**2001, 2005**). //[|Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems]//. [|MIT Press]
 * 2002**
 * Levente Kocsis, Jos Uiterwijk, Eric Postma, Jaap van den Herik (**2002**). //[|The Neural MoveMap Heuristic in Chess]//. CG 2002
 * Erik van der Werf, Jos Uiterwijk, Eric Postma, Jaap van den Herik (**2002**). //[|Local Move Prediction in Go]//. CG 2002
 * Gerald Tesauro (**2002**). //Programming backgammon using self-teaching neural nets//. [|Artificial Intelligence Vol. 134 No. 1-2]
 * Mark Winands, Levente Kocsis, Jos Uiterwijk, Jaap van den Herik (**2002**). //Temporal difference learning and the Neural MoveMap heuristic in the game of Lines of Action//. in GAME-ON 2002, [|pdf]
 * Jacek Mańdziuk (**2002**). //Neural Networks for the N-Queens Problem: a Review//. [|Control and Cybernetics], Vol. 31, No. 2, [|pdf]
 * Moshe Sipper (**2002**) //[|Machine Nature: The Coming Age of Bio-Inspired Computing]//. [|McGraw-Hill, New York]
 * Paul E. Utgoff, David J. Stracuzzi (**2002**). //Many-Layered Learning//. [|Neural Computation], Vol. 14, No. 10, [|pdf]
 * Michael I. Jordan, Terrence J. Sejnowski (eds.) (**2002**). //[|Graphical Models: Foundations of Neural Computation]//. [|MIT Press]
 * 2003**
 * Levente Kocsis (**2003**). //Learning Search Decisions//. Ph.D thesis, Maastricht University, [|pdf]
 * Markus Enzenberger (**2003**). //[|Evaluation in Go by a Neural Network using Soft Segmentation]//. Advances in Computer Games 10, [|pdf]
 * Alois Heinz (**2003**). //[|Yes, Trees May Have Neurons]//. [|Computer Science in Perspective 2003]
 * 2004**
 * [|Jan Peter Patist], Marco Wiering (**2004**). //[|Learning to Play Draughts using Temporal Difference Learning with Neural Networks and Databases]//. [|Cognitive Artiﬁcial Intelligence], [|Utrecht University], Benelearn’04
 * Henk Mannen, Marco Wiering (**2004**). //[|Learning to play chess using TD(λ)-learning with database games]//. [|Cognitive Artiﬁcial Intelligence], [|Utrecht University], Benelearn’04
 * Mathieu Autonès, Aryel Beck, Phillippe Camacho, Nicolas Lassabe, Hervé Luga, François Scharffe (**2004**). //[|Evaluation of Chess Position by Modular Neural network Generated by Genetic Algorithm]//. [|EuroGP 2004]
 * Daniel Walker, Robert Levinson (**2004**). //The MORPH Project in 2004//. ICGA Journal, Vol. 27, No. 4
 * 2006**
 * Holk Cruse (**2006**). //[|Neural Networks as Cybernetic Systems]//. 2nd and revised edition, [|Department of Biological Cybernetics], [|Bielefeld University]
 * Geoffrey E. Hinton, [|Simon Osindero], [|Yee Whye Teh] (**2006**). //[|A Fast Learning Algorithm for Deep Belief Nets]//. [|Neural Computation], Vol. 18, No. 7, [|pdf]
 * Geoffrey E. Hinton, Ruslan R. Salakhutdinov (**2006**). //Reducing the Dimensionality of Data with Neural Networks//. [|Science], Vol. 313, [|pdf]
 * 2007**
 * Edward P. Manning (**2007**). //[|Temporal Difference Learning of an Othello Evaluation Function for a Small Neural Network with Shared Weights]//. IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games
 * [|Yong Duan], [|Baoxia Cui], Xinhe Xu (**2007**). //State Space Partition for Reinforcement Learning Based on Fuzzy Min-Max Neural Network//. [|ISNN 2007]
 * [|David Kriesel] (**2007**). //[|A Brief Introduction to Neural Networks]//. available at []
 * Roland Stuckardt (**2007**). //Applying Backpropagation Networks to Anaphor Resolution//. In: [|António Branco] (Ed.), //[|Anaphora: Analysis, Algorithms, and Applications]//. Selected Papers of the [|6th Discourse Anaphora and Anaphor Resolution Colloquium, DAARC 2007], [|Lagos, Portugal]
 * 2008**
 * Ilya Sutskever, Vinod Nair (**2008**). //Mimicking Go Experts with Convolutional Neural Networks//. [|ICANN 2008], [|pdf]
 * [|Simon S. Haykin] (**2008**). //[|Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation]//. 3rd Edition, []
 * Toshinori Munakata (**2008**). //[|Fundamentals of the New Artificial Intelligence: Neural, Evolutionary, Fuzzy and More]//. 2nd edition, [|Springer], 1st edition 1998
 * Byoung-Tak Zhang (**2008**). //Hypernetworks: A molecular evolutionary architecture for cognitive learning and memory//. IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine, Vol. 3, No. 3, [|pdf]
 * [|Qing Song], James C. Spall, [|Yeng Chai Soh], [|Jie Ni] (**2008**). //Robust Neural Network Tracking Controller Using Simultaneous Perturbation Stochastic Approximation//. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks, Vol. 19, No. 5, [|2003 pdf] » SPSA
 * 2009**
 * Daniel Abdi, Simon Levine, [|Girma T. Bitsuamlak] (**2009**). //Application of an Artificial Neural Network Model for Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Profile Development//. 11th Americas conference on wind Engineering, [|pdf]

2010 ...
> Nicol N. Schraudolph (**2012**). //[|Centering Neural Network Gradient Factors]//. > [|Léon Bottou] (**2012**). //[|Stochastic Gradient Descent Tricks]//. [|Microsoft Research], [|pdf] > Ronan Collobert, Koray Kavukcuoglu, Clément Farabet (**2012**). //[|Implementing Neural Networks Efficiently]//.
 * [|Ian Stewart], [|Wenying Feng], Selim Akl (**2010**). //Tuning Neural Networks by Both Connectivity and Size//. [|ITNG 2010]
 * 2011**
 * Jonathan K. Vis (**2011**). //Discrete Tomography: A Neural Network Approach//. Master's thesis, Leiden University, [|pdf]
 * Jonathan K. Vis, Walter Kosters, Joost Batenburg (**2011**). //Discrete Tomography: A Neural Network Approach//. [|BNAIC 2011] [|pdf]
 * Nikolaos Papahristou, Ioannis Refanidis (**2011**). //Training Neural Networks to Play Backgammon Variants Using Reinforcement Learning//. Proceedings of [|Evogames 2011], Part I, LNCS 6624, [|pdf]
 * 2012**
 * [|Sjoerd van den Dries], Marco Wiering (**2012**). //[|Neural-fitted TD-leaf learning for playing Othello with structured neural networks]//. IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems, Vol. 23, No. 11
 * Jürgen Schmidhuber, [|Faustino Gomez], [|Santiago Fernández], [|Alex Graves], [|Sepp Hochreiter] (**2012**). //[|Sequence Learning with Artificial Recurrent Neural Networks]//. (Aiming to become the definitive textbook on RNN.) Invited by [|Cambridge University Press]
 * Peter McLeod, [|Brijesh Verma] (**2012**). //[|Clustered ensemble neural network for breast mass classification in digital mammography]//. [|IJCNN 2012]
 * Grégoire Montavon, [|Geneviève B. Orr], Klaus-Robert Müller (eds.) (**2012**). //[|Neural Networks: Tricks of the Trade]//. (2nd Edition) [|LNCS] 7700, [|Springer]
 * 2013**
 * Grégoire Montavon (**2013**). //[|On Layer-Wise Representations in Deep Neural Networks]//. Ph.D. Thesis, [|TU Berlin], advisor Klaus-Robert Müller
 * Volodymyr Mnih, Koray Kavukcuoglu, David Silver, Alex Graves, Ioannis Antonoglou, Daan Wierstra, Martin Riedmiller (**2013**). //Playing Atari with Deep Reinforcement Learning//. [|arXiv:1312.5602]
 * 2014**
 * Ian Goodfellow, Jean Pouget-Abadie, Mehdi Mirza, Bing Xu, David Warde-Farley, Sherjil Ozair, Aaron Courville, Yoshua Bengio (**2014**). //Generative Adversarial Networks//. [|arXiv:1406.2661v1]
 * Christopher Clark, Amos Storkey (**2014**). //Teaching Deep Convolutional Neural Networks to Play Go//. [|arXiv:1412.3409]
 * Chris J. Maddison, Aja Huang, Ilya Sutskever, David Silver (**2014**). //Move Evaluation in Go Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks//. [|arXiv:1412.6564v1] » Go
 * Ilya Sutskever, [|Oriol Vinyals], [|Quoc V. Le] (**2014**). //Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks//. [|arXiv:1409.3215]
 * 2015**
 * [|Michael Nielsen] (**2015**). //[|Neural networks and deep learning]//. Determination Press
 * Geoffrey E. Hinton, [|Oriol Vinyals], [|Jeff Dean] (**2015**). //Distilling the Knowledge in a Neural Network//. [|arXiv:1503.02531]
 * James L. McClelland (**2015**). //[|Explorations in Parallel Distributed Processing: A Handbook of Models, Programs, and Exercises]//. Second Edition, [|Contents]
 * Gábor Melis (**2015**). //[|Dissecting the Winning Solution of the HiggsML Challenge]//. [|NIPS 2014]
 * [|Diederik P. Kingma], [|Jimmy Lei Ba] (**2015**). //Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization//. [|arXiv:1412.6980v8], [|ICLR 2015]
 * Volodymyr Mnih, Koray Kavukcuoglu, David Silver, Andrei A. Rusu, Joel Veness, Marc G. Bellemare, Alex Graves, Martin Riedmiller, Andreas K. Fidjeland, Georg Ostrovski, Stig Petersen, Charles Beattie, Amir Sadik, Ioannis Antonoglou, Helen King, Dharshan Kumaran, Daan Wierstra, Shane Legg, Demis Hassabis (**2015**). //[|Human-level control through deep reinforcement learning]//. [|Nature], Vol. 518
 * Jürgen Schmidhuber (**2015**). //[|Deep Learning in Neural Networks: An Overview]//. [|Neural Networks], Vol. 61
 * [|Zachary C. Lipton], [|John Berkowitz], Charles Elkan (**2015**). //A Critical Review of Recurrent Neural Networks for Sequence Learning//. [|arXiv:1506.00019v4]
 * Guillaume Desjardins, Karen Simonyan, Razvan Pascanu, Koray Kavukcuoglu (**2015**). //Natural Neural Networks//. [|arXiv:1507.00210]
 * Barak Oshri, Nishith Khandwala (**2015**). //Predicting Moves in Chess using Convolutional Neural Networks//. [|pdf]
 * [|Yann LeCun], Yoshua Bengio, Geoffrey E. Hinton (**2015**). //[|Deep Learning]//. [|Nature], Vol. 521
 * Matthew Lai (**2015**). //Giraffe: Using Deep Reinforcement Learning to Play Chess//. M.Sc. thesis, [|Imperial College London], [|arXiv:1509.01549v1] » Giraffe
 * Nikolai Yakovenko, Liangliang Cao, Colin Raffel, James Fan (**2015**). //Poker-CNN: A Pattern Learning Strategy for Making Draws and Bets in Poker Games//. [|arXiv:1509.06731]
 * Yuandong Tian, Yan Zhu (**2015**). //Better Computer Go Player with Neural Network and Long-term Prediction//. [|arXiv:1511.06410] » Go
 * Peter H. Jin, Kurt Keutzer (**2015**). //Convolutional Monte Carlo Rollouts in Go//. [|arXiv:1512.03375]
 * [|Kaiming He], [|Xiangyu Zhang], [|Shaoqing Ren], [|Jian Sun] (**2015**). //Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition//. [|arXiv:1512.03385]
 * Nicolas Heess, Jonathan J. Hunt, Timothy Lillicrap, David Silver (**2015**). //Memory-based control with recurrent neural networks//. [|arXiv:1512.04455]
 * 2016**
 * Dharshan Kumaran, Demis Hassabis, James L. McClelland (**2016**). //What learning systems do intelligent agents need? Complementary Learning Systems Theory Updated//. [|Trends in Cognitive Sciences], Vol. 20, No. 7, [|pdf]
 * Ziyu Wang, Nando de Freitas, Marc Lanctot (**2016**). //Dueling Network Architectures for Deep Reinforcement Learning//. [|arXiv:1511.06581]
 * David Silver, Aja Huang, Chris J. Maddison, Arthur Guez, Laurent Sifre, George van den Driessche, Julian Schrittwieser, Ioannis Antonoglou, Veda Panneershelvam, Marc Lanctot, Sander Dieleman, Dominik Grewe, John Nham, Nal Kalchbrenner, Ilya Sutskever, Timothy Lillicrap, Madeleine Leach, Koray Kavukcuoglu, Thore Graepel, Demis Hassabis (**2016**). //[|Mastering the game of Go with deep neural networks and tree search]//. [|Nature], Vol. 529 » AlphaGo
 * Tobias Graf, Marco Platzner (**2016**). //Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks in Monte Carlo Tree Search//. CG 2016
 * Aja Huang (**2016**). //AlphaGo: Combining Deep Neural Networks with Tree Search//. CG 2016, Keynote Lecture
 * Peter H. Jin, Kurt Keutzer (**2016**). //Convolutional Monte Carlo Rollouts for Computer Go//. CG 2016
 * Hung Guei, Tinghan Wei, Jin-Bo Huang, I-Chen Wu (**2016**). //An Empirical Study on Applying Deep Reinforcement Learning to the Game 2048//. CG 2016
 * Omid E. David, Nathan S. Netanyahu, Lior Wolf (**2016**). //[|DeepChess: End-to-End Deep Neural Network for Automatic Learning in Chess]//. [|ICAAN 2016], [|Lecture Notes in Computer Science], Vol. 9887, [|Springer], [|pdf preprint] » DeepChess
 * Dror Sholomon, Omid E. David, Nathan S. Netanyahu (**2016**). //[|DNN-Buddies: A Deep Neural Network-Based Estimation Metric for the Jigsaw Puzzle Problem]//. [|ICAAN 2016], [|Lecture Notes in Computer Science], Vol. 9887, [|Springer]
 * Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio, Aaron Courville (**2016**). //[|Deep Learning]//. [|MIT Press]
 * Volodymyr Mnih, Adrià Puigdomènech Badia, Mehdi Mirza, Alex Graves, Timothy Lillicrap, Tim Harley, David Silver, Koray Kavukcuoglu (**2016**). //Asynchronous Methods for Deep Reinforcement Learning//. [|arXiv:1602.01783v2]
 * [|Patricia Churchland], Terrence J. Sejnowski (**2016**). //[|The Computational Brain, 25th Anniversary Edition]//. [|MIT Press]
 * Audrūnas Gruslys, Rémi Munos, Ivo Danihelka, Marc Lanctot, Alex Graves (**2016**). //Memory-Efficient Backpropagation Through Time//. [|arXiv:1606.03401]
 * Andrei A. Rusu, Neil C. Rabinowitz, Guillaume Desjardins, Hubert Soyer, James Kirkpatrick, Koray Kavukcuoglu, Razvan Pascanu, Raia Hadsell (**2016**). //Progressive Neural Networks//. [|arXiv:1606.04671]
 * James Kirkpatrick, Razvan Pascanu, Neil C. Rabinowitz, Joel Veness, Guillaume Desjardins, Andrei A. Rusu, Kieran Milan, John Quan, Tiago Ramalho, Agnieszka Grabska-Barwinska, Demis Hassabis, Claudia Clopath, Dharshan Kumaran, Raia Hadsell (**2016**). //Overcoming catastrophic forgetting in neural networks//. [|arXiv:1612.00796]
 * 2017**
 * Yutian Chen, Matthew W. Hoffman, Sergio Gomez Colmenarejo, Misha Denil, Timothy Lillicrap, Matthew Botvinick, Nando de Freitas (**2017**). //Learning to Learn without Gradient Descent by Gradient Descent//. [|arXiv:1611.03824v6], [|ICML 2017]
 * Muthuraman Chidambaram, Yanjun Qi (**2017**). //Style Transfer Generative Adversarial Networks: Learning to Play Chess Differently//. [|arXiv:1702.06762v1]
 * Matej Moravčík, Martin Schmid, Neil Burch, Viliam Lisý, Dustin Morrill, Nolan Bard, Trevor Davis, Kevin Waugh, Michael Johanson, Michael Bowling (**2017**). //[|DeepStack: Expert-level artificial intelligence in heads-up no-limit poker]//. [|Science], Vol. 356, No. 6337
 * David Silver, Julian Schrittwieser, Karen Simonyan, Ioannis Antonoglou, Aja Huang, Arthur Guez, Thomas Hubert, Lucas Baker, Matthew Lai, Adrian Bolton, Yutian Chen, Timothy Lillicrap, Fan Hui, Laurent Sifre, George van den Driessche, Thore Graepel, Demis Hassabis (**2017**). //[|Mastering the game of Go without human knowledge]//. [|Nature], Vol. 550
 * David Silver, Thomas Hubert, Julian Schrittwieser, Ioannis Antonoglou, Matthew Lai, Arthur Guez, Marc Lanctot, Laurent Sifre, Dharshan Kumaran, Thore Graepel, Timothy Lillicrap, Karen Simonyan, Demis Hassabis (**2017**). //Mastering Chess and Shogi by Self-Play with a General Reinforcement Learning Algorithm//. [|arXiv:1712.01815] » AlphaZero
 * Tristan Cazenave (**2017**). //[|Residual Networks for Computer Go]//. IEEE Transactions on Computational Intelligence and AI in Games, Vol. PP, No. 99, [|pdf]

=Blog & Forum Posts=

1996 ...
> [|Re: Evaluation by neural network ?] by Jay Scott, CCC, November 10, 1997
 * [|Q: Neural Nets/Genetic Algor. and Chess] by Jeff Hamm, rgcc, March 01, 1996
 * [|neural networks for pawn-structures] by Romain Slootmaekers, rgcc, March 29, 1996
 * [|Neural Network based Chessprogram] by Michael Niemeck, rgcc, April 16, 1996
 * [|Neural Nets in Chess? Question to experts] by George R. Barrett, rgcc, February 02, 1997
 * [|Chess using Neural Networks/Fuzzy Logic] by Kumar Chellapilla, rgcc, February 12, 1997
 * [|Evaluation by neural network ?] by Mark Taylor, CCC, November 10, 1997
 * [|neural network and chess] by Yeeming Jih, rgcc, April 23, 1998
 * [|Chess, Backgammon and Neural Nets (NN)] by Torsten Schoop, CCC, August 20, 1998
 * [|Chess and Neural Networks] by Frank Schubert, CCC, January 27, 1999
 * [|Neural networks] by Bill Keller, rgcc, September 01, 1999
 * [|neural computing in eval function] by Tijs van Dam, CCC, December 20, 1999

2000 ...
> [|Re: Whatever happened to Neural Network Chess programs?] by Andy Walker, rgcc, March 28, 2000 » Advances in Computer Chess 1, Ron Atkin > [|Combining Neural Networks and Alpha-Beta] by Matthias Lüscher, rgcc, April 01, 2000 » Chessterfield > [|Neural nets in backgammon] by Albert Silver, CCC, April 07, 2004
 * [|Whatever happened to Neural Network Chess programs?] by Ray Lopez, rgcc, March 26, 2000
 * [|Neural Networks in Chess] by Guy Haworth, CCC, June 23, 2000
 * [|Artificial Neural Networks for Chess] by Jet Nebula, rgcc, April 02, 2002
 * [|chess and neural networks] by Ralph Stoesser, CCC, July 01, 2003
 * [|Presentation for a neural net learning chess program] by Dann Corbit, CCC, April 06, 2004
 * [|Chess Neural Network: ANOTHER VICTORY FOR OCTAVIUS!] by Luke Pellen, rgcc, May 04, 2004

2005 ...

 * [|designing neural networks] by Gerd Isenberg, CCC, August 31, 2007
 * [|naive bayes classifier] by Don Dailey, CCC, July 21, 2009

2010 ...
> [|Re: Chess program with Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)?] by Gian-Carlo Pascutto, CCC, January 07, 2010 » Stoofvlees > [|Re: Chess program with Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)?] by Gian-Carlo Pascutto, CCC, January 08, 2010 > [|Re: Chess program with Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)?] by Volker Annuss, CCC, January 08, 2010 » Hermann
 * [|Chess program with Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)?] by Stephan Vermeire, CCC, January 07, 2010
 * [|Is there place for neural networks in chess engines?] by E Diaz, CCC, December 02, 2011
 * [|What does the hidden layer in a neural network compute?] by GeorgeMcDowd, [|Cross Validated], July 02, 2013
 * [|Move Evaluation in Go Using Deep Convolutional Neural Networks] by Aja Huang, [|The Computer-go Archives], December 19, 2014

2015 ...
> [|Re: Deep Learning Chess Engine ?] by Alexandru Mosoi, CCC, July 21, 2016 » Zurichess > [|Re: Deep Learning Chess Engine ?] by Matthew Lai, CCC, August 04, 2016 » Giraffe > [|Re: Is AlphaGo approach unsuitable to chess?] by Peter Österlund, CCC, May 31, 2017 » Texel
 * [|If you are interested in machine learning and Python !] by [|Ruxy Sylwyka], CCC, February 23, 2015
 * [|*First release* Giraffe, a new engine based on deep learning] by Matthew Lai, CCC, July 08, 2015 » Giraffe
 * 2016**
 * [|Neural networks for Spanish checkers and beyond] by Alvaro, Game-AI Forum, January 01, 2016
 * [|Chess position evaluation with convolutional neural network in Julia] by Kamil Czarnogorski, [|Machine learning with Julia and python], April 02, 2016
 * [|Deep Learning Chess Engine ?] by Eren Yavuz, CCC, July 21, 2016
 * [|Neuronet plus conventional approach combined?] by Rasmus Althoff, CCC, September 02, 2016
 * [|DeepChess: Another deep-learning based chess program] by Matthew Lai, CCC, October 17, 2016 » DeepChess
 * [|The scaling of Deep Learning MCTS Go engines] by Kai Laskos, CCC, October 23, 2016 » Deep Learning, Go, MCTS
 * 2017**
 * [|Deep Pink: a chess engine using deep learning] by Chao Ma, CCC, February 05, 2017 » Deep Pink
 * [|Using GAN to play chess] by Evgeniy Zheltonozhskiy, CCC, February 23, 2017
 * [|Is AlphaGo approach unsuitable to chess?] by Mel Cooper, CCC, May 27, 2017 » AlphaGo, Deep Learning, Giraffe
 * [|Neural nets for Go - chain pooling?] by David Wu, [|Computer Go Archive], August 18, 2017
 * [|AlphaGo Zero: Learning from scratch] by Demis Hassabis and David Silver, DeepMind, October 18, 2017
 * [|We are doomed - AlphaGo Zero, learning only from basic rules] by Vincent Lejeune, CCC, October 18, 2017
 * [|AlphaGo Zero] by Alberto Sanjuan, CCC, October 19, 2017
 * [|Zero performance] by Gian-Carlo Pascutto, [|Computer Go Archive], October 20, 2017
 * [|Re: AlphaGo Zero] by Hendrik Baier, [|Computer Go Archive], October 20, 2017
 * [|Neural networks for chess position evaluation- request] by Kamil Czarnogorski, CCC, November 13, 2017 » Evaluation
 * [|AlphaGo's evaluation function] by Jens Kipper, CCC, November 26, 2017
 * [|Neural Nets can't explain what they do and this is a problem] by Myron Samsin, November 26, 2017
 * [|Google's AlphaGo team has been working on chess] by Peter Kappler, CCC, December 06, 2017 » AlphaZero
 * [|Historic Milestone: AlphaZero] by Miguel Castanuela, CCC, December 06, 2017
 * [|An AlphaZero inspired project] by Truls Edvard Stokke, CCC, December 14, 2017 » AlphaZero
 * 2018**
 * [|Announcing lczero] by Gary, CCC, January 09, 2018 » LCZero
 * [|Connect 4 AlphaZero implemented using Python...] by Steve Maughan, CCC, January 29, 2018 » AlphaZero, Connect Four, Python
 * [|3 million games for training neural networks] by Álvaro Begué, CCC, February 24, 2018 » Automated Tuning
 * [|Looking inside NNs] by J. Wesley Cleveland, CCC, March 09, 2018

=External Links= > [|Convolutional Neural Networks] > [|Deep Residual Networks] > [|Neurogrid from Wikipedia] > [|History of the Perceptron] > [|Restricted Boltzmann machine from Wikipedia] > [|The Single Layer Perceptron] > [|The Sigmoid Function in C#] > [|Hidden Neurons and Feature Space] > [|Training Neural Networks Using Back Propagation in C#] > [|Data Mining with Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)] > [|Neural Net in C++ Tutorial] on [|Vimeo] (also on [|YouTube]) > [|Neural Lab from Wikipedia] > [|SNNS from Wikipedia] > [|Part 1: Data and Architecture], [|YouTube] Videos > [|Part 2: Forward Propagation] > [|Part 3: Gradient Descent] > [|Part 4: Backpropagation] > [|Part 5: Numerical Gradient Checking] > [|Part 6: Training] > [|Part 7: Overfitting, Testing, and Regularization] > [|But what *is* a Neural Network? | Chapter 1] > [|Gradient descent, how neural networks learn | Chapter 2] > [|What is backpropagation really doing? | Chapter 3] > [|Backpropagation calculus | Appendix to Chapter 3] > Marc Ribot, [|Kenny Wollesen], [|Joey Baron], [|Jamie Saft], [|Trevor Dunn], [|Cyro Baptista], John Zorn > media type="youtube" key="97MsK88rjy8"
 * [|Neural network (disambiguation) from Wikipedia]
 * [|Category:Neural networks - Scholarpedia]
 * [|Neural networks - Psychology Wiki]
 * Biological**
 * [|Biological neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Biological neuron model from Wikipedia]
 * [|Computational neuroscience from Wikipedia]
 * [|Neuron from Wikipedia]
 * [|Neural pathway from Wikipedia]
 * ANNs**
 * [|Artificial neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Types of artificial neural networks from Wikipedia]
 * [|Artificial Neural Networks - Wikibooks]
 * [|Artificial Neural Networks] by Christos Stergiou and Dimitrios Siganos
 * [|DMOZ - Computers: Artificial Intelligence: Neural Networks]
 * [|DMS Tutorial - Neural networks]
 * [|Helmholtz machine from Wikipedia]
 * [|Chess end games using Neural Networks]
 * Topics**
 * [|Artificial neuron from Wikipedia]
 * [|Connectionism from Wikipedia]
 * [|Convolutional neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Convolutional Neural Networks for Image and Video Processing], [|TUM Wiki], Technical University of Munich
 * [|Deep Learning from Wikipeadia]
 * [|Deep Learning - Scholarpedia] by Jürgen Schmidhuber
 * [|Feedforward neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Fuzzy neural network - Scholarpedia]
 * [|Generative adversarial networks from Wikipedia]
 * [|Grossberg network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Modular neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Multilayer perceptron from Wikipedia]
 * [|Neocognitron from Wikipedia]
 * [|Neocognitron - Scholarpedia] by [|Kunihiko Fukushima]
 * [|Neuromorphic engineering from Wikipedia]
 * [|Perceptron from Wikipedia]
 * [|Physical neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Radial basis function network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Random neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Recursive neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Self-organizing map from Wikipedia]
 * [|Spiking neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Time delay neural network from Wikipedia]
 * RNNs**
 * [|Recurrent neural network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Recurrent neural networks - Scholarpedia]
 * [|Recurrent Neural Networks] by Jürgen Schmidhuber
 * [|Bidirectional associative memory from Wikipedia]
 * [|Boltzmann machine from Wikipedia]
 * [|Echo state network]
 * [|Hopfield network from Wikipedia]
 * [|Hopfield network - Scholarpedia]
 * [|Long short term memory from Wikipedia]
 * Activation Functions**
 * [|Activation function from Wikipedia]
 * [|Rectifier (neural networks) from Wikipedia]
 * [|Sigmoid function from Wikipedia]
 * Backpropagation**
 * [|Backpropagation from Wikipedia]
 * [|Backpropagation through structure from Wikipedia]
 * [|Backpropagation through time from Wikipedia]
 * [|Rprop from Wikipedia]
 * [|Who Invented Backpropagation?] by Jürgen Schmidhuber (2014, 2015)
 * Gradient**
 * [|Gradient from Wikipedia]
 * [|Del from Wikipedia]
 * [|Gradient descent from Wikipedia]
 * [|Conjugate gradient method from Wikipedia]
 * [|Stochastic gradient descent from Wikipedia]
 * [|ORF523: Nesterov’s Accelerated Gradient Descent] by Sébastien Bubeck, [|I’m a bandit], April 1, 2013 » Yurii Nesterov
 * [|Nesterov’s Accelerated Gradient Descent for Smooth and Strongly Convex Optimization] by Sébastien Bubeck, [|I’m a bandit], March 6, 2014
 * [|Revisiting Nesterov’s Acceleration] by Sébastien Bubeck, [|I’m a bandit], June 30, 2015
 * Blogs**
 * [|Neural Networks Blog] by Ilya Sutskever
 * [|An Introduction to Neural Networks with an Application to Games] by [|Dean Macri], [|Intel Developer Zone], September 9, 2011
 * [|John Wakefield's] [|Dynamic Notions], a Blog about the evolution of neural networks with C# samples
 * [|Dave Miller Blog - Tag: Neural Net]
 * [|A Gentle Introduction to Artificial Neural Networks] by [|Dustin Stansbury], [|The Clever Machine], September 11, 2014
 * [|Deep learning for… chess] by Erik Bernhardsson, November 29, 2014
 * [|Faster deep learning with GPUs and Theano] by [|Manojit Nandi], August 05, 2015 » GPU, Python
 * [|Enabling Continual Learning in Neural Networks] by James Kirkpatrick, Joel Veness et al., DeepMind, March 13, 2017
 * [|Understand Deep Residual Networks — a simple, modular learning framework that has redefined state-of-the-art] by [|Michael Dietz], [|Waya.ai], May 02, 2017
 * [|How to build your own AlphaZero AI using Python and Keras] by [|David Foster], January 26, 2018 » AlphaZero, Connect Four, Python
 * Libraries**
 * [|Eigen (C++ library) from Wikipedia]
 * [|Fast Artificial Neural Network Library (FANN)]
 * [|PythonForArtificialIntelligence - Python Wiki] Python
 * [|TensorFlow from Wikipedia]
 * Software**
 * [|Neural network software from Wikipedia]
 * [|Comparison of deep learning software from Wikipedia]
 * Courses**
 * [|Machine Learning and Probabilistic Graphical Models: Course Materials - 5. Neural Networks] by [|Sargur Srihari], [|University at Buffalo]
 * [|Neural Networks - Representation] from [|Stanford Machine Learning] by Andrew Ng
 * [|Neural Networks - Learning] from [|Stanford Machine Learning] by Andrew Ng
 * [|Neural Networks Demystified] by [|Stephen Welch], [|Welch Labs]
 * [|Deep Learning Master Class] by Ilya Sutskever, [|YouTube] Video
 * [|Lecture 10 - Neural Networks] from [|Learning From Data - Online Course (MOOC)] by [|Yaser Abu-Mostafa], [|Caltech], [|YouTube] Video
 * [|Lecture 12 - Learning: Neural Nets, Back Propagation] by Patrick Winston, MIT, AI Lectures - Fall 2010 [|YouTube] Videos
 * [|Neural Networks] by [|3Blue1Brown], October 9, 2017, [|YouTube] Videos
 * Music**
 * [|The Dreamers] & John Zorn - Gormenghast, [|Pellucidar: A Dreamers Fantabula] (2015), [|YouTube] Video

=References= =What links here?= include page="Neural Networks" component="backlinks" limit="300"
 * Up one Level**